Structured query language: Development

Structured query language: Development Abstract Database technology and the Structured Query Language (SQL) have grown enormously in recent years. This paper presents results of the research on the historical perspective of the development of SQL and its continuing development. Applications from different domains have different requirements for using database technology and SQL. This paper also presents an overview on definition of the Standard Query Language, and highlighted the several benefits and produce literature on risks of adopting a Standard Query language. Keyword SQL, DBMS, XML, Data, Database. Introduction Standard Query Language (SQL) is today the standard language for relational and object-relational databases. Application programs commonly include a relatively large number of SQL queries and updates, which are sent to the Database Management System (DBMS) for execution. The most generally used database management systems, such as Oracle, Access, mySQL, SQLserver, Paradox, Ingres, and others, are all claimed to be relational. Certainly, they all use SQL which itself is often simulated to be an indicator of a relational database system. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the historical perspective of the development of SQL and its continuing development. This article also highlighted the benefits and risks of adopting a standard query language. This paper is based on review history of the Standard Query Language and literature on benefit and risks of adopting SQL. Evolution and current situation of the SQL Abreu, et.al. (2006) described that the relational model came about as a result of E. Codds research at IBM during the sixties. The SQL, originally named SEQUEL (Structured English Query Language), was implemented in an IBM prototype (SEQUEL-XRM), during the mid-seventies. Some years later, a subset of this language was implemented in IBMs System-R. In 1979, ORACLE emerged as the first commercial DBMS based on SQL, followed by several other products such as SQL/DS, DB2, DG/SQL, SYBASE, INTERBASE, INFORMIX, UNIFY. Even those which had not originally implemented SQL as their base query language, offered SQL interfaces such as INGRES, ADABAS, SUPRA, IDMS/R. As a result of this process, Standard Query Language became a de facto standard. In late 1982, American National Standards Institute (ANSI) H23 begins to standardize SEQUEL which is version of the relational data model through the IBM language. In 1986, renamed SQL by H2, basic SQL was completed and become an American National Standard and soon an ISO standard. In 1989, the first version of the SQL standard was revised and an addendum, which included main improvements on referential integrity issues, was published. Meanwhile, ANSI brought out a standard for embedded SQL. In the early nineties, a new version, known as SQL2 or SQL-92, was published by ISO. Both the semantic capabilities of the language and error management were then considerably improved. That standard was complemented a few years later, with the approval of SQL/CLI (Call-Level Interface) and SQL/PSM (Persistent Stored Modules). SQL became a complete computational language, with features such as control structures and exception handling. During the last half of the nineties, SQL was extended by the inclusion of object-oriented capabilities. The resulting standard was divided into several parts. This version, previously known as SQL3 and then finally called SQL:1999, incorporated features such as new basic data types for example very large objects, user defined data types, recursive query operators, sensitive cursors, tables generalization and user roles. According to Abreu, et.al. (2006), The latest version of the standard is the SQL:2003, which is there are major revisions and extensions to most parts of the SQL:1999 standard. This version contains SQL/XML which is XML related specifications, new basic data types such as bigint, multiset and XML, enhancements to SQL-invoked routines, extensions to the CREATE TABLE statement, there are new MERGE statement, schema object which is the sequence generator and two new sorts of columns for identity and generated. He also produced the Table 1 as summarizes the evolution of SQL. Table 1 Evolution of SQL Year SQL 70s Relational model DBMS prototypes (SEQUEL XRM) First relational DBMS 80s ANSI SQL-86 standard ISO SQL-87 standard SQL-89 addendum ANSI embedded SQL 90s SQL 92 SQL/CLI SQL/PSM SQL:1999 2003 SQL:2003 Accordingto Wikipedia, thereis another standard produced at 2006 and 2008, The SQL:2006 by ISO/IEC 9075-14:2006 which defines waysfor SQL for conjunction with XML. It also defines how to do storing and importing XML data for SQL, manipulating the data on database and publishing SQL data and XML in XML form. In addition, by use of Query and XML Query Language, it can integrate into their SQL code the published by World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) in order to concurrently access ordinary SQL-data and XML documents. The latest standard is SQL:2008, it legalizes ORDER BY outside cursor definitions. It adds INSTEAD OF triggers and the TRUNCATE statement. Abreu, et.al. (2006) highlighted the SQL:2003 standard is composed of nine parts, which are briefly described in Table 2. The numeration of parts is not contiguous due to historical reasons: some parts have disappeared such as SQL:1999s part 5 SQL/Bindings was included in part 2 of SQL:2003 and other parts are new. The latter resulted either from further partitioning of previous parts such as part 11 was previously included in SQL:1999 part 2 or from the implementation of new requirements, such as parts 13 and 14, dealing with Java methods and XML data, respectively. Since the SQL:1999, the SQL standard has evolved, to support the object-relational paradigm. This paradigm proposes a good compromise between relational and object-oriented databases. The former have a robust data model which is the relational one and powerful query optimization, recovery, security and concurrency mechanisms. The latter incorporate object-oriented mechanisms such as encapsulation, generalization, aggregation and polymorphism, and allow representing more complex elements which are required in several domains, such as CAD, CAM or GIS. Object-relational databases offer the possibility of defining classes or abstract data types, as well as tables, primary and foreign keys and constraints, as relational databases also do. Furthermore, generalization hierarchies can be defined among classes or tables. Table attributes can be defined in a simple domain for example CHAR(25) or in a user-defined class, as a complex number or image. Table 2 Structure and summary of the SQL:2003 standard Part Name Description 1 Framework (SQL/Framework) Overviewof the standard. It describes terms and notation used in the other parts. It also defines the result of processing statements in that language and the grammar of SQL by a SQL-implementation that has been illustrating in the conceptual framework used for other parts. 2 Foundation (SQL/Foundation) Thispart describes the basic operations on SQL-data and data structures. The functional query such as controlling, maintaining, accessing, creating, and protecting SQL-data. It also defines the semantics and syntax of a database language. It deals with the portability of data definitions and compilation units between SQL-implementations and the interconnection of SQL-implementations. 3 Call-Level Interface (SQL/CLI) Itdescribes procedures to execute SQL statements within standard programming language in application written, such the SQL statements will be executed use independent functions. 4 Persistent Stored Modules (SQL/PSM) It defines how the semantics and syntax of a database language has been declare and maintain persistent database language systems in SQL-server modules. 9 Management of External Data (SQL/MED) Extensionsto Database Language SQL is definedfor support management of external data purpose by using data link types and foreign-data wrappers 10 Object Language Bindings (SQL/OLB) Itdefines SQLJQ, which is describes extensions in the Java programming language, for support embedding of SQL statements into programs written. The syntax and semanticsof SQLJ described by this part, as well as mechanisms to make sure binary portability of resulting SQLJ applications. This part also defines a number of Java packages and their classes. 11 Information and Definition Schema (SQL/Schemata) Thispart defines a Definition Schema that characterizes the SQL object identifier, the integrity and structure constraints of SQL-data, the authorization and security specifications associated to SQL-data, the features, sub-features and the support that each of these has in an SQL implementation and also packages of this standard, and an Information Schema. It also includes SQL-implementationinformation and sizing items. 13 Routines and Types Using the Java Programming Language (SQL/JRT) Itdescribes the Java programming language on doing capability of invoking static methods as SQL-invoked routines and SQL structured user-defined types for using classes specified in the Java programming language. 14 XML-Related Specifications (SQL/XML) Thispart describes ways in which SQL also can be used for conjunction with XML. SQL Overview Gardner and Hagenbuch (1983) stated that Relational DBMSs are normally accessed via a data language. In order to allow the DBMS to optimize accesses to the database and to deal with problems related to concurrent access by multiple users, the languages are typically very high level. The SQL is an example of such a language that can be used for that purpose. They also said that SQL statements are non-procedural statements of what data to retrieve, for example the query statements to retrieve employee such as SELECT * FROM EMP , or what operation to perform, for example the query statement to delete some data which is non-queries such as DELETE EMP WHERE NAME = Jones .While simple SQL statements can easily be entered interactively by end-users, the complex sequences of operations required by most applications for example closing the books for the end of month, those are better handled by embedding SQL in a procedural programming language. According to Kuhlemann, et al. (2008) SQL is a database query language used for formulating statements that are processed by a database management system for create and maintain a database. The SELECT statement is the most commonly used by the SQL query which can retrieve data from one or more tables in the database. It can limit the retrieved data using conditional statements in the WHERE clause, the GROUP BY clause can use for group related data and it can limit the grouped data with the HAVING clause; for order or sort data which based on different columns using the ORDER BY clause. He also stated that SQL consists of many statements to create and manipulate database objects. Since its first standardization in 1986, more and more functionality is being included in SQL in each subsequent standard covering a variety of aspects of user interaction. The latest edition of the SQL standard, referred to as SQL:2003, supports various functionality such as call level interfacing, foreign-data wrappers, embedding SQL statements in Java, business intelligence and data warehousing functions, support for XML, new data types, etc. The next standard, called SQL 20071, it will most likely add features like regular expression support, binary and outing decimal data types, materialized views, streaming data support, XQuery support and support for the Resource Description Framework (RDF) and the semantic web. Many researchers have led the huge scope of SQLs functionality to advocate the usage of a `scaled down version of SQL, especially for embedded systems. The hardware limitations such as small RAM, small stable storage, and large data read/write ratio come up from embedded systems. Also the applications where embedded systems are used, for an example such as healthcare and bank cash cards, need only a small set of queries like select, project, views, and aggregations. Kuhlemann, et al. (2008) described that a standard called Structured Card Query Language (SCQL) by ISO considers inter-industry commands for use in smart cards with constrained functionality of SQL. This issue has been proposed to address by some database systems and SQL engines. They are distinguished as `tiny, e.g., the TinyDB2 database system, for extracting information from a sensor network and tinySQL3 SQL engine, which is a Java SQL engine that supports only a few SQL statements like select, update, insert, delete. While the standardization process shows how SQL has increased in size and complexity in terms of features provided, efforts for `scaled down versions show a need to control and manipulate features of SQL. Gardner and Hagenbuch (1983) stated that SQL is a data language designed for use with the relational data model. The executable unit of SQL is the statement, but there are no SQL programs. SQL statements execute in the context of a single enrolled user of the database. The context in which a statement executes chooses what advantages it may exercise on objects in the database. Just only one or two contexts will be absorbed by an application program. Many SQL statements may run within each context. Each statement isdescribed by the DBMS, i.e., prepared for execution. Catrambone and Yuasa (2006) cited in (Smelcer, 1989) described that the Structured Query Language for databases, which sometimes referred to as the ‘‘Standard Query Language, is a command language for relational databases. It was preferred here as the test domain because writing a query with SQL is a relatively complicated task and because the knowledge required to write queries can be fully specified. Moore (1992) said that â€Å"SQL† was once an acronym for the â€Å"Structured Query Language† which was associated with a propriety implementation. When SQL is used to refer to the ANSI standard, it is no longer an acronym, simply a short form of â€Å"Database Language-SQL†. Benefits of adopting SQL Donaho and Davis listed that several features make Standard Query Language at least as good as any other query language currently in use : The basic concepts and syntax of SQL are easy for learned. This short initial learning period can decreases the amount of training required and it also can increases productivity. SQL is a reasonably high-level language. The programmer can write queries without knowing all of the intimate details of the DBMS implementation. For example, a SELECT clause allows the user to identify the needed data without indicating how to access it. SQL associate the data definition and data manipulation languages. Unlike other query languages, SQL uses the same syntactic constructs for definition functions and manipulation functions. This regularity makes the language easier to learn and use. SQL provides the functionality needed for most database applications. That is, the language is powerful enough to do most of the things required in a database application. According to Biggar, Chawla and Meese (2009), other benefits of adopting SQL include: Lower capital and operational costs by reduced IT footprint, easier management, storage platform features and licensing advantages. Improved agility and manageability by isolating application workloads on the storage system, providing heterogeneous storage support, and allowing live automated provisioning of storage. Higher availability by simplified backup and recovery, availability during server maintenance, failover support through physical host clustering, and business continuity or disaster recovery. Hoffer (2009) also stated the benefits of SQL are as follow: Reduced training cost, training for organization can focus one language only. Productivity, IS professionals become more proficient and learn SQL with it from continued use. They can increase the productive, usually programmers can more rapidly maintain the existing program. Application portability, when each machine uses SQL the applications can be moved from machine to machine. Application longevity, when new versions of DBMSs are introduced and the standard of language is enhanced, the applications will simply be updated. Reduced dependence on a single vendor, which may lower prices and improve service because of the market for such vendors can become more competitive,. Cross-system communication, managing data and processing user programs can become more easily communicated. Risks of adopting SQL Maciol (2008) stated that SQL has a row of limitations coming from its foundations such as: It is difficult for defining terms and lists. There is limitation of atomic data. Lack of repetition and iteration. Limited possibilities of data processing control. Lack of deduction possibility. Chan, Lu and Wei (2003) listed the problem while using SQL : Comprehension difficulty : Complex queries are not easy to analyze, usually by another person. The nested maze is quite confusing. This confirms one of the theoretical flaws of SQL not well defined semantics for nesting (Codd 1990). Multiple joins of many tables can lead to uncertainty of the query accuracy. Logical errors are difficult to detect, as compared to 3GLs. Formulation problem : Joins are difficult for end-users. Too many aggregate functions in a single query have led to problems. Use of wrong field and name definition. Unable to format the output as desired. Variables used with wrong variable types, especially for embedded SQL. Performance Response is slow when system does not select the best path to access tables. Database contention occurs by simultaneous accesses A query may need to be broken into smaller queries to speed up processing time. This requires more temporary space. Unclear error message sometimes give wrong impressions. They also stated that usually whenusers encounter problems with SQL, the majority refers to the manual. This also confirms the finding that manuals form a substantial secondary source of SQL knowledge. Mostly prefer try to find the assistance of colleagues or superiors. Only a minority, attempt to query with other languages, while less will try another means, one of which was to try until get it right, to SQL manuals. Brass and Goldberg (2005) highlighted that errors in SQL queries can be classified into syntactic errors and semantic errors. A syntactic error means that the entered character string is not valid SQL. Then there are print an error message because it cannot execute the query by any DBMS. Thus, the error is easy to correct and definitely detected. A semantic error means that a legal SQL query was entered, but the query does not or not always produce the intended results, and is therefore incorrect for the given task. Semantic errors can be further classified into cases where the task must be known in order to detect that the query is incorrect, and cases where there is sufficient evidence that the query is incorrect no matter what the task is. Kiefer and Nicola (2009) observed that the adoption of SQL/XML faces several challenges. When relational legacy applications need access to new XML data, it is often too expensive to convert them from SQL to SQL/XML. Another frequent challenge is to actually write queries and updates with SQL/XML and Query. There are numbers of problem can occur such as: Users need to learn these new languages, which are often perceived as difficult to master. This stems from the differences between the XML data model and the relational data model. SQL/XML involves path expressions that navigate the tree structure of XML documents. To write path expressions, users must know the structure of the XML data in detail. It is not enough to know which data items exist, it is also necessary to know their exact case-sensitive name, namespace, and location within the document structure. But, this structure is often complex, difficult to understand, or even unknown to the user. As more XML documents are accumulated in a database, newer documents may have a different XML Schema than older ones. This requires queries and updates to work across documents for different schemas, which compounds the complexity of writing SQL/XML statements. Also, existing XML queries may need to be changed when the XML Schema evolves. In a hybrid database, where some data is stored in relational format and some in XML format, users need to know which data is in which format before they can write correct queries. Conclusion The SQL (Structured Query Language) is presently available for most database management systems. The SQL:2008 is the latest standard whichlegalizes ORDER BY outside cursor definitions. It also adds INSTEAD OF triggers and the TRUNCATE statement. This paper present briefly overview history of Standard Query Language, it also analyze benefits and risk of adopting SQL. There are benefit of adopting SQL such as lower capital and operational costs, improved agility and manageability and higher availability. There are many risk occur when adopting SQL, but usually the user can easily handle that risks. In future work, it can investigate patterns for SQL queries in greater detail such as analyzing SQL queries from real projects. References Abreu, F.B., Baroni, A., Calero, C., Piattini, M. (2006). An ontological approach to describe the SQL:2003object-relational features. Computer Standards Interfaces, 28, 695-713. Biggar, H., Chawla, A., Meese, L. (2009). The Benefits of Virtualizing Microsoft ® SQL Server ® in Hitachi Storage Environments. http://www.hds.com/assets/pdf/the-benefits-of-virtualizing-microsoft-sql-server-wp.pdf. Brass, S., Goldberg, C. (2005). Semantic errors in SQL queries: A quite complete list. The Journal of Systems and Software, 79, 630-644. Catrambone, R., Yuasa, M. (2006). Acquisition of procedures: The effects of example elaborations and active learning exercises. Learning and Instruction,16 , 139e153. Chan, H.C., Lu, H., Wei, K.K. (1993). A Survey on Usage of SQL. Sigmod Record, Vol. 22. Davis, G.K., Donaho, J.E. Ada-Embedded SQL : the Options. Vii.3-72. Gardner, M., Hagenbuch, B. (1983). Interfacing Apl And Sql. .ACM, 0-89791-095-8/83/0400-0109. Hoffer, J.A., Prescott, M.B., Topi, H. (2002). Modern Database Management. New Jersey : Pearson Education. Kiefer, T., Nicola, M. (2009). Generating SQL/XML Query and Update Statements. ACM,978-1-60558-512-3/09/11. Kuhlemann, M., Saake, G., Siegmund, N., Sunkle, S., Uller, M.R. (2008). Generating Highly Customizable SQL Parsers. ACM, 978-1-59593-964-7/08/03. Maciol, A. (2008). An application of rule-based tool in attributive logic for business rules modeling. Expert Systems with Applications, 34, 1825-1836. Moore, J. W. (1992). Minimizing the disadvantages of embedded sql/ada. ACM, 0-S9791-529-1 /92/0011-0407. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL.

Academic Achievement Essay

Academic Achievement This unit will help you: use your prior knowledge to help you understand what you are reading; practice reading for a specific purpose; make decisions about the relevance of a text in terms of reading purpose; read selectively in order to use appropriate information from the text. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The topic of this unit concerns factors that may lead to improvement in academic performance among students. It is based on three major research projects carried out in the United States. The influence of class size on academic achievement (157–159). Task 1: Predicting text content Think about what factors can have an influence on the academic achievement of the students in a school, college, or university. Look at the following list of possible influences and rate the ideas on a scale of 1–5 (1 = very little influence, 5 = very strong influence). Influence on academic performance Resources available (e. g. , computers, laboratories, textbooks) Teacher level (qualifications, experience, etc. ) Student motivation Rating 1. 3 Add and rate some of your own ideas. Then compare your list and ratings with a partner. Focus task. Your reason for reading Text 1-1 is to get some background information to help you write the following essay. English for academic study 18 Academic Achievement 1 Task 2: Reading for a purpose 2. 1 Look carefully at the title of Text 1-1. Do you think that the text will be useful for writing an assignment about academic achievement? Share your conclusions with another student. Read the introduction to Text 1-1 (lines 1–66). As you read, try to make up your mind about how useful this text might be for your purpose. When you have finished reading, circle and complete the following sentence. 2. 2 Task 3: Reading selectively 3. 1 Read the subheading (lines 67–68) and think about your own opinion on the issue. Do you think that smaller class sizes help to improve academic performance? Circle your answer then write one reason for your choice below. 3. 2 Below are some notes that have been made by another student on Text 1-1. Read lines 67–117 and check the points mentioned in the text. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) Reading & Writing 3. 3 Read lines 69–72. What does anecdotal mean? Try to guess the meaning of this word by looking carefully at the whole sentence. If the ideas in this paragraph are anecdotal, think about how seriously you should take them into account when writing your assignment. 19 3. 4 Read lines 97–117 and underline specific information from this paragraph that you might use to help in the completion of the Focus task. Think about: †¢ †¢ 3. 5 how useful you think this paragraph might be in relation to the Focus task; whether you think the sources are reliable. With a partner, compare and justify your choice of information for all four questions. Task 4: Identifying the writer’s purpose 4. 1 Read lines 118–192 and decide on the main functions of this section of text from the choices given below. For each choice, rate the function from 0–5 depending on how sure you are (5 = very sure). Study tip It can be very helpful to recognize why the writer has written a text, or a section of a text, i. e. , what the function of the text is. Function a) To persuade the readers to accept a certain point of view. b) To explain the importance of using research data instead of anecdotal explanations. c) To evaluate the importance of the research carried out into the effect of classroom size on academic achievement. d) To describe the research method used in various parts of the US into the effect of classroom size on academic achievement. 4. 2 What is the function (or functions) of Figure 1: Milestone studies in class size (page 159)? a) to summarize the content of the text b) to outline the content of certain relevant research c) to explain the importance of the STAR project d) to compare the data from research about class size Rating Task 5: Understanding referencing in texts Referencing in a text is a way of linking words and ideas together, thus  making the text more cohesive and easier to understand. The following activity will provide practice in this important skill. 5. 1 Look at line 119 of Text 1-1. What information or idea in the text do the words these findings refer to? a) The US Department of Education b) The National Assessment of Educational Progress c) Project STAR Study tip An effective reader makes use of referencing in a text to gain a clear understanding of what the author wishes to convey. 20 English for academic study Academic Achievement 5. 2 What other words or phrases (lines 119–148) refer to the same data? a) b) 5. 3 (line number (line number ) ) 1 What reasons do the writers give for ignoring the data? Complete the list below, using a similar note form. a) b) c) d) e) 5. 4 What factors, according to the writers, made Project STAR better than other poorly designed studies? Complete the list below, using a similar note form. a) b) c) d) e) Text 1-2 A case study: Shining star (p. 160) Task 6: Reading a text for closer understanding (1) 6. 1 What general point is made in the first paragraph of Text 1-2 (lines 1–11)? Find a short phrase that best summarizes this conclusion. Reading & Writing 21 21 6. 2 In the second paragraph, which of the following benefits of smaller classes do Finn and Achilles (1990) identify in their review of the project? Answer true or false and add the line number from where you found the answer. a) Better academic performance in small-sized classes. b) Students benefit at an early stage in small classes. (line number (line number ) (line number ) ) ) c) Students later continue to perform well in normal-sized classes. ) d) Average students make the most progress. e) Minority groups gained the most significant benefits. (line number (line number f) On average, ethnic minority students improved by one-fifth of standard deviation. (line number ) 6. 3 In the final paragraph, which of the findings of Finn and Achilles (ibid. ) in Ex 6. 2 does Hanushek comment on? Put a check ( ) when Hanushek agrees and a cross ( ) when he disagrees. Write N/A if Hanushek does not mention these findings. a) b) c) d) e) f) 6. 4 To what extent do you feel that the analyses of Project STAR will help you with the Focus task? Rate your opinion 0–5 (0 = not at all). Discuss your answer with a partner. Text 1-3 The Asian paradox: Huge classes, high scores (p. 161) Task 7: Reading a text for closer understanding (2) 7. 1 Discuss with a partner or in groups what you know about academic performance in developed Asian countries, and how academic success is achieved. Read lines 1–65 of Text 1-3. As you read, remember to highlight ideas that might be useful for the Focus task. What is your understanding of the â€Å"Asian paradox†? What one word in the text (lines 17–35) gives a reason for this Asian paradox? 7. 2 English for academic study 7. 3 22 Academic Achievement 7. 4 Find other short phrases in the rest of the paragraph (lines 35–48) that might provide further reasons for the apparent academic success of Japanese students. 1 7. 5 Having read the text, have you found any information that might be useful for the Focus task? Task 8: Thinking critically about the text 8. 1 Look at the list of possible influences on academic performance in Task 1 (page 18). Are there any new influences you want to add to the table, and any you want to delete? Influence on academic performance Rating 8. 2 If you added any influences to your table, what rating would you give them, on a scale of 1–5? Task 9: Making use of the text You now have some information that may help with the Focus task that you will be given in order to complete Unit 1 of English for academic study: Writing, if you are studying that course. Reading & Writing Decide now if, and how, you can use the information in Texts 1-1, 1-2 and 1-3. 23 Unit summary In this unit you have thought about using your prior knowledge to help you understand what you are reading and made decisions about the relevance of a text in terms of reading purpose. You have learned to identify the writer’s purpose and to read selectively in order to use appropriate information from the text. 1 Complete this summary about the reading skills you practiced in the first unit with some of the words from the box. understanding meaning expertly prior title critically predictions subheadings selectively purpose It is easier to read a text if you have some knowledge of the topic that the text is about. This will help you to make and will give you a , which you always need when you read. Knowing why you are reading and what you are looking for will help you to both enjoy a text and focus on it better. Reading the and any there might be will help you to quickly know if you want to read a text and how useful it will be to you. It is important to read , especially if you are short of time. Some parts of a text will provide the information you need while other parts will be less important. You will usually read a text quickly first to get a general idea of what it is about and then read more carefully for closer and to be able to think about the content. 2 Look at these possible topics of a reading passage. How much prior knowledge do you have of each topic? Mark each topic as follows: L – I know a lot about this topic, so I could make plenty of predictions. S – I know something about this topic, and so I could make a few predictions. N – I know very little or nothing about this topic, so I wouldn’t be able to make any predictions. a) increasing traffic congestion in major cities b) special education for children with learning difficulties c) the growth in the popularity of baseball in Asian countries d) the intelligence of dolphins e) the origins of development of paper making English for academic study For web resources relevant to this unit, see: www. englishforacademicstudy. com/us/student/reading/links 24 1 1. 1 Academic Achievement. This unit will help you: think about the aims of academic study, and how to achieve them; learn about the different stages of the writing process; identify and learn how to cope with difficulties in academic writing; learn how to consider the knowledge and expectations of your reader; think about different approaches to the organization of your ideas. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Task 1: Thinking about academic success The following questionnaire, Ex 1. 1–1. 14, will help you think about your views on the meaning of academic success and aspects of academic writing. You will then be able to discuss your views with the rest of the class. What is the aim of academic study? (Please check ( ) one or more. ) to meet intelligent people to ensure having a career or future job to discover more about theories and certain known facts to discuss philosophy to enjoy learning to enable members of society to exchange ideas that are intellectually stimulating* to develop personal growth to contribute to the social and economic development of society to pass examinations to gain a higher-level degree to improve cooperation between different members of world society * intellectually stimulating: encouraging the mind to develop further 1. 2 How important is it for you as a student to develop the following characteristics while studying at university? (Check ( ) H for High importance, M for Medium importance, L for Low importance. ) H M L knowing your strengths and weaknesses thinking about how to further develop your abilities thinking about how to approach a particular task using a logical, reasoned approach to study approaching your subject in depth being interested in finding things out learning how to study communicating results successfully Study tip Working with information is a good way of helping you develop ideas. Doing a questionnaire is one example of this, but you can do this yourself by setting clear goals for reading text, e. g. , having several clear questions you would like to answer. Reading & Writing 83 1. 3 What is academic writing? (Please check ( ) one or more. ) a mechanical exercise groups of grammatically correct sentences the clear expression of ideas, knowledge and information a form of self-expression a way of exploring, addressing and expressing academic issues a way of communicating results or information. 1. 4 To write well academically, how important are the following? (Check ( ) H for High importance, M for Medium importance, L for Low importance. ) H M L reading a lot studying grammar studying vocabulary imitating other writers writing a lot inviting others to comment on your writing going back and thinking again about what you have written rewriting repeatedly until you are satisfied understanding the process of writing meeting the needs of your reader 1. 5. How important do you think the following are when writing academic texts? (Check ( ) H for High importance, M for Medium importance, L for Low importance. ) H M L grammatical correctness spelling and punctuation (using periods, commas, etc. ) an appropriate style overall organization vocabulary good ideas good use of sources (appropriate citation, bibliography) relevance of subject content English for academic study response to the task 1. 6 In which of the following ways can you support your ideas when writing academic texts?  using personal anecdotes* using facts using statistics 84. Academic Achievement using examples using the news using information from books, articles, reports, the Internet using analogies** using the views and attitudes of others using research data * anecdote: a short, often amusing account of something that has happened ** analogy: to make or draw an analogy between two things is to show they are alike in some way 1. 7 Which of the following contribute to successful academic writing? Presenting information clearly and precisely analyzing questions and issues clearly and precisely distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant material recognizing key assumptions* identifying competing points of view demonstrating excellent reasoning and problem-solving abilities adopting a critical stance** understanding the context for which you are writing * assumption: if you make an assumption that something is true, you accept it is true without any real proof or evidence ** critical stance: to take a critical stance is to have a strong viewpoint on something after examining and judging it carefully 1. 8 When persuading your professor or other members of your academic community that your argument is valid, how important are the following? (Check ( ) H for High importance, M for Medium importance, L for Low importance. ) H M L analyzing questions stating facts reasoning your argument logically from facts explaining key terms using language appropriate to a particular subject area using other points of view to  strengthen your argument or research demonstrating the weaknesses of other people’s arguments acknowledging the limitations of your own argument or research supporting your argument with examples frequently summarizing your argument referring to well-argued conclusions 1. Reading & Writing 85 1. 9 Should you always think of academic writing as communicating with another person? Why/Why not? 1. 10 What do you do, or what do you concentrate on, when you are given a writing task: a) while you are still writing your first draft? b) when you have finished your first draft? c) before you hand in your final draft? 1. 11. What type of academic writing have you done in the past? 1. 12 What difficulties do you have with writing in English or in your own language? 86 English for academic study Academic Achievement 1. 13 What do you do when you have difficulties? 1 1. 14 Do you enjoy academic writing? Why/Why not? When you have finished the questionnaire, compare your answers with those of other people in your group. Discuss your answers, and keep notes of the discussion. Do you find that you all have very similar views and experiences? Or are your views and experiences very different? Are there any general trends among students in the group? Material adapted from White, R. V. (1994). Writing English for academic study series and Richards, R. (2001). Presenting critical thinking as a study strategy for UK higher education. Text 1 Academic achievement (pp. 157–161) You will have an opportunity to read these extracts from articles in the Scientific American during this stage. This will help you identify information that is relevant to the title of your essay. Task 2: Microskills: Planning The essay that you will prepare in this unit is on the following topic: Before you begin writing, you should spend some time: †¢ †¢ †¢thinking about exactly what the question is asking you to write about; generating ideas about the topic; this is called brainstorming; organizing your ideas into a plan. Reading & Writing As part of this preparation, you should read Texts 1-1, 1-2, and 1-3 to identify relevant information. You might also find that some of the ideas generated by the questionnaire and discussion in Task 1 will help you. 87 2. 1 Discuss what you think the key words are in the essay question: a) with a partner; b) with the whole group and your instructor. 2. 2 Spend five minutes writing down all the ideas you can think of that are relevant to the essay topic. Write notes, not complete sentences, so that your ideas flow. The order of your ideas is not important at this stage. Study tip Discuss the ideas you have written in Ex 2. 2: a) with a partner; b) with the whole group and your instructor. 2. 3 2. 4 Decide which of your ideas you are going to use in your essay. Writing down ideas quickly in note form is a very good way of unlocking your understanding. As long as you let your ideas flow and don’t try too hard, you will be surprised by what you already know. a) To help you, ask yourself these questions about your readers: †¢ What knowledge about academic study do they already have? †¢ What do you think they are interested in reading about in your essay? b) When you have decided which ideas you are going to include, organize them into a logical order in a plan. You may want to develop some of the ideas further and you may want to add a new idea. †¢ Group together ideas that seem to belong to the same paragraph. †¢ Think carefully about the order in which you will arrange the paragraphs. 2. 5 Discuss your plan with your partner. When you look at your partner’s plan, ask yourself: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ What is the overall idea in the essay? Does the plan follow a logical sequence of ideas? Are the ideas grouped effectively into paragraphs? Is the main idea clear in each paragraph? How many paragraphs will the essay contain? If the answers to these questions are not clear from looking at your partner’s plan, ask her/him to explain. Perhaps the plan needs to be changed or developed more. Note: Remember your plan is your guide; when you think more and start writing, you may need to change it, so keep evaluating it. 2. 6 Think about your partner’s comments on your plan and try to improve it. Write the first draft of your essay. At this stage, you should try to write between 400 and 600 words. Study tip  It is always helpful to get another opinion. This will not only help you improve your essay writing, but also get you used to the idea of modifying and redrafting that is so important in university study. 2. 7 English for academic study 88 Academic Achievement 2. 8 When you have finished your first draft, find another student who has also finished and exchange drafts. a) Read your partner’s draft carefully. Respond to the questions on the Peer Evaluation Sheet for Unit 1 on page 141 of this book. b) When commenting on your partner’s draft, remember that constructive criticism is more helpful when giving advice. The phrases below for making polite suggestions should help you to express your comments in a constructive manner. 1 Giving Peer Feedback PHRASES FOR MAKING POLITE SUGGESTIONS †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ It might be a good idea if you †¦ It might be a good idea to †¦ I agree with you, but you could †¦ Right, but you could †¦ This is/That’s good, but you could †¦ My advice would be to †¦ Do you think a better approach might be to †¦? Why don’t you †¦? How about this? Perhaps you could †¦ Maybe it would be better to †¦ I think it would be better if you †¦ Can I/May I make another suggestion? I would recommend that you †¦ Have you thought about (verb + ing) †¦? What about †¦? Remember: Peer feedback should be supportive and helpful—provide constructive criticism. Task 3: Microskills: Introductions 3. 1 Quickly write down what you think are the important points to include in an introduction to an academic essay. Reading & Writing 89 3. 2 Discuss your ideas and explain why you have chosen these points: a) with a partner; b) with the rest of the class. Study tip EAS Writing contains suggestions for individual work as well as pair, group, and class discussion. Make full use of this varied interaction to develop your ideas. 3. 3 Answer the following questions: a) What function or purpose does the introduction of an essay have? b) What should an introduction contain? 90 English for academic study Academic Achievement 3. 4 Look at the following sentences from an introduction to an essay on The problems of population growth. a) Decide which would be the most logical order of these sentences: 1 This growth has created many problems, especially in the capital cities. This essay will discuss the situation that has led to the development of these problems and describe some of them. The population of the world has been growing rapidly over the last thirty years. It will then suggest some possible solutions to the problems and evaluate their viability. The problems include housing, pollution, unemployment, and food and water shortages. b) Compare what you think with another student and also say why you decided on the order you chose. c) Together with your partner, try to identify an obvious pattern to the introduction and decide what the function of each sentence is. 3. 5 Read carefully the following five introductions for an essay entitled Academic success in one’s own culture and try to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses. % % â€Å"(! ‘%, & ! % ! ‘ (! ) %& ‘, &( % ! ‘ #%† % & â€Å"% ( ‘ â€Å"! ! % ! ‘ â€Å"(!’% & ) %, &# ( ‘ â€Å"! &,&’ ‘ ‘ & #’ ‘† â€Å"(! ‘%, ( ‘ â€Å"! &,&’ & â€Å"% ! %† #% %, & â€Å"† ‘† & && , & â€Å"(‘ ‘ &( && ! % ! && & â€Å"! † ‘ â€Å"&’ #†%’ ! ‘ † & † ! , &'( ! ‘& ! % % &† % ) ! ‘ ‘†%& ‘† † ‘ ! ‘ & † ! ! ,†( ! !’ % † ‘ ! & ‘ ‘ ,†( &( ! ,†(% ) %, , % â€Å"&’ ! , % &'( ! ‘& ‘%, ‘† ! ‘ % † â€Å"* ) % &† &'( ! ‘& #% % ‘† &'( , ! & † & & && , * & % &† ‘†%& ‘ ‘ % â€Å"& , % ‘ ‘† &( && ! ! ! ) %, † , * & & ‘† ) &( && ! &† ‘, / ( &&0 ! ! & &† ‘, & ! â€Å"‘ â€Å"! , â€Å"% â€Å"! 1& â€Å"*! â€Å"! â€Å"% (‘ &† ‘ * † ,1& (%’ % â€Å"% â€Å"% â€Å"&’ ! & &'( ! ‘& ! ‘ %&’ &’ â€Å"(% &( && ‘ ‘ ‘ % $( % ‘† ! â€Å"† & â€Å"% ! !’ % % & â€Å"† ‘† &'( , ! ‘ & â€Å"! &’ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘! â€Å"% &'( ! ‘ ‘† ! â€Å"† † â€Å"% â€Å"! ‘% (‘ ‘† &# & ‘ â€Å"( / &( && 0 !’ â€Å"! â€Å"(% ( ‘ â€Å"! &,&’ ! â€Å"! #’ † ‘% ‘ â€Å"! ( ‘(% * ,& ‘& â€Å"(% &'( ! ‘&1 &( && % â€Å"% ‘ & && , * & % &( && ! * ! ! ! ‘ ‘ % ‘ ‘†%& Reading & Writing 91 ( ‘ â€Å"! & â€Å"! † ‘ & ‘†%& â€Å"! ‘% (‘ ! ‘† ‘ ) â€Å"# ! ‘ † &† ‘, ( ‘ â€Å"% ‘ % ‘ # â€Å"# â€Å"( % – ‘ % #†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ ! ‘ ) â€Å"† , +’ ! ! ( ‘ â€Å"! ! % ‘ # â€Å"# , #%†) ‘ % ( ‘(% † ‘( & & && , * & % ‘ ( ‘ â€Å"! &,&’ ! % ‘ & &( && ! â€Å"(% â€Å"(! ‘%, ! , ‘†%& ‘† & % ‘ ! â€Å"(! & ‘ & ‘†# ! ‘ â€Å"! ‘& #†%’ ! # ! & â€Å"! ‘ † â€Å"* ! !’ ! ‘ ! ‘ † & ‘ #† , † ‘ â€Å") %! !’ ‘ &,&’ † ( ‘ â€Å"! &(##à ¢â‚¬ %’ &,&’ ! ‘ & ‘ %&’ *†( ‘† ! ‘ !! â€Å"% ! &* % ! ‘ & $( &’ â€Å"! !’ & $( &’ â€Å"!. * ‘ ! † ‘ &% % & &( && ! # !. & & â€Å"&’ # ! & * ! &* % ‘ ‘ ‘ & ‘† % ( ‘ %† % (! ) %& ‘, % & â€Å"† % &†! ‘† & , &† ! # ! & &† ‘, ‘ % &’ † ‘ ! % % & &'( ! ‘&1 (‘(% ‘ ,† ‘ ! % ! ‘ % & â€Å"† % % #%† , ‘* ! &( && ! ‘ % (‘(% ‘ % % ( ‘! â€Å"&’ † ‘ * ‘† ! ‘ % #% &’ â€Å"(& † # ! , ! % , ‘ & & (& ( † (# ‘ â€Å"! ! ‘& â€Å"! ‘ â€Å"! & % â€Å"† % â€Å"% ! , # â€Å"# ‘ ( ‘ ‘† #% # % â€Å"% # && ! & â€Å"† + & † % ! ) ‘† &'( , % â€Å"% ‘ , † ! ‘ & â€Å"† ! %’ & % ( &’ ! & ‘ & & ‘ ‘ ‘ , â€Å"% ‘ ‘ ! ! † &'( , ! &( ‘& & && , ! ‘ â€Å"! & â€Å"‘ ) ‘ â€Å"! ‘† &'( , ! ‘% & ‘† % (# ‘ !! † &( && ! â€Å"(% ( ‘(% Edited extracts from authentic student mater ial 3. 6 Imagine you are writing an essay on the following three topics. Write a suitable introduction for each one of them. (Note that you are not going to  write the whole essay. ) a) The education system in one’s own country. b) Traveling broadens the mind. Discuss. c) The rapid development of electronic communications may mean that people will have fewer social skills. Discuss. 3. 7 When you write the second draft of your essay What are the aims of academic study and how can they be achieved? make appropriate changes to the introduction, and other parts, according to your peer feedback session. Study tip Spend time on your introduction as it plays a crucial role in the essay. It should provide the reader with a clear indication of the main areas you are going to discuss. 92 English for academic study Academic Achievement 1 Unit summary In this unit you have reflected on your attitudes and approach to academic writing skills. You have thought about the different stages of the writing process and practiced planning, writing a first draft, and giving peer feedback. You have also looked at how to write effective introductions to your essays. 1 Match the words and phrases in the box to their definitions below. They are all procedures and techniques that form part of the writing process. drafting brainstorming peer feedback organizing ideas adopting a critical stance a) Generating and noting down initial ideas about a topic without ordering them b) Putting ideas together in a logical sequence c) Deciding on and expressing your viewpoint after examining and judging possible opinions d) The process of writing and putting your essay together. Most essays will have two or more drafts and will be revised and edited after each draft. e) Comments on your essay from other students 2 Complete the sentences below on writing an academic text using some of the words from Ex 1. a) When you are given a writing task, it is important to start by b) When you write the first draft you should. c) Before you hand in your final draft 3 After working on this unit, write down ways in your notebook of how you improved your knowledge of academic writing. Reading & Writing For web resources relevant to this unit, see: www. englishforacademicstudy. com/us/student/writing/links 93 Academic Achievement Text 1-1: The influence of class size on academic achievement 1 THE INFLUENCE OF CLASS SIZE ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT Education is a pillar of modern society and the subject of endless, often passionate arguments about how it can best be improved. In the U. S. , there is heated 5 debate following revelations that the country’s secondary school  students perform poorly relative to many Asian and European students. The news coincided with increasing concern over the nation’s urban and 10 lower-income suburban schools, too many of which are languishing at achievement levels far below those of middle-class and upper middle-class suburban schools. Of all the ideas for improving education, 15 few are as simple or attractive as reducing the number of pupils per teacher. With its uncomplicated appeal and lack of a big, powerful group of opponents, class-size reduction has lately developed from a sub20 ject of primarily academic interest to a key political issue. In the United States, more than 20 states and the federal government have adopted policies aimed at decreasing class sizes, and billions of dollars have been 25 spent or committed in the past few years. The demand for smaller classes is also growing in Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, and even Japan, whose record of secondary school performance is the envy of 30 most other developed countries. The most obvious drawback to class-size reduction is the huge cost. It requires more teachers, more classrooms, and more classroom equipment and resources. These 35 expenses can dwarf the price of alternative schemes, such as testing teachers or increasing their pay as a means of attracting better candidates. The state of California, for example, has been spending more than 40 $1. 5 billion annually over the past several years to reduce class size to 20 or fewer for children in the four- to seven-year-old bracket. On the other hand, if smaller classes really do work, the economic benefits could be huge. 157 Reading & Writing Text 1-1: The influence of class size on academic achievement cont. 158 English for academic study smaller classes. Finally, some analysts believe that the very youngest age group in smaller classes are more likely to develop good study habits, higher self-esteem and possibly other beneficial cognitive traits— which may very well persist for years, even 95 after the students have gone back to more normal-sized classes. One way investigators have attempted to analyze the effects of class size is by reviewing existing data, such as records kept by the 100 U. S. Department of Education. These show that between 1969 and 1997, the average number of pupils per teacher in American public and private elementary schools fell from 25. 1 to 18. 3, a decline of greater than 105 27%. In secondary schools, the number also fell, from 19. 7 to 14. 0. Of concern, however, is the fact that despite these steep drops in pupil-teacher ratios, the improvement in academic performance was negligible. Data 110 from the National Assessment of Educational Progress—a series of tests that is the only United States-wide indicator of student knowledge in reading, mathematics, science WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS and other subjects—show no significant OF SMALLER CLASS SIZES? 115 gains. In some specific age and subject categories, such as 17-year-olds and science, Educators have a multitude of explanations performance actually decreased slightly. for why smaller class sizes might be expect70 ed to improve academic performance, although frequently the ideas are anecdotal. WHAT THE RECORD SHOWS Fewer students in the classroom seem to translate into less noise and disruptive However, these findings do not necessarily 75 behavior from students, which not only gives the teacher more time for class work but 120 mean that class size makes no difference. For a variety of reasons, most researchers, also more freedom to engage students creincluding the writers, pay little attention to atively—by, for example, dividing them into these figures (Figure 1). For instance, groups for specific projects. In addition, schools strive for more than just high test 80 smaller classes make it more likely that the teacher can give greater individual attention 125 scores; they also usually try to keep their dropout rate low. In fact, the dropout rate to struggling students. Smaller classes also for students aged 16–24 fell from 15 to 11 allow teachers to encourage more discuspercent over the period. Because dropouts sion, assign more writing, and closely examgenerally come from the low end of the 85 ine their students’ written work. In other words, much of the benefit of reduced class 130 achievement distribution, a reduction in dropout rate could be expected to pull down size may depend on whether the teachers average test scores in the upper grades. adapt their methods to take advantage of They would accrue not just from the benefits of a better-educated workforce but also from other sources, such as the avoided medical costs and sick days of a healthier, more informed populace. The surge of interest in smaller classes 50 has spurred fresh analyzes of the largest, most conclusive study to date, which took place in Tennessee in the late 1980s. At the same time, new data are flowing from 55 various initiatives, including the California program and a smaller one in Wisconsin. These results and analyzes are finally offering some tentative responses to the questions that researchers must answer before 60 legislators can come up with policies that make educational and economic sense: Do small classes in fact improve school achievement? If they do, at what age level do they accomplish the greatest good? What kind of 65 students gain the greatest benefit, and most importantly, how great is the benefit? 45 90 Academic Achievement Text 1-1: The influence of class size on academic achievement cont. 1 FIGURE 1: MILESTONE STUDIES IN CLASS SIZE PROJECT STATE STUDENTS PARTICIPATING APPROX. COST SMALL CLASS SIZE KEY FINDINGS STAR 1985–89 Tennessee 10,000 $12m 13–17 Significant performance benefit of 0. 2 standard deviation; larger gains for minority pupils Small performance gain of about 0. 05 to 0. 1 standard deviation; no greater gains for minorities Significant performance advantage of 0. 2 standard deviation; larger gain.

I Am The Product Of Clark County Educational System Essay

Reflection Introduction Writing has never been my forte. Nevertheless, this is not to say that I could not write. Throughout the semester with the assigned reading assignments and the given practical writing exercises I have come to grasp a vague understanding, I had never been taught how to write essays correctly. I am the product of Clark County Educational system. I have always struggled through my last classes and hoped to get out of my struggles this semester. One the greatest challenges that I faced was the distinction that existed among different types of writings that are performed within the English language. I did not understand how the distinction between a narrative essay, report essay and an analytical essay, argumentative essay, and reflective essay among other types of essays. I just thought all was the same regarding content and structure. Additionally, this semester has, however, had an influence on my writing skills and ability a great deal. Before this class, I began my papers with plain facts. The readings and the writing conducted throughout this semester have enabled me to understand the wrongs and the rights encompassed within the English language. Before engaging in writing, I started by discussing my thoughts and impressions with my peers or basically a brainstorming session. Finally, finishes up with a computer search on the subject assigned. Furthermore, the overview and the in-depth study conducted on the topic was very helpful. I becameShow MoreRelatedThe Great Northwoods Essay7709 Words   |  31 Pagesthe history of an event does not begin at its conception. With this in mind, it is my intention to provide the reader with a general history of events that led to the formation of the Nicolet National Forest of northern Wisconsin. In order to do so, I found it necessary to begin with the early exploratio ns of such notables as James Cartier, Samuel de Champlain, and Jean Nicolet. 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Rap Music And Its Effects On America - 1649 Words

Rap was originally created as a means of self-expression, while conveying present conditions within marginalized African American communities. Attaining global awareness in America, rap music emerged as one of the most controversial genres America has seen, influencing both white and black culture. Birthed in the mid- 1970’s rap music came to fruition in the Southern Bronx area of New York City. As rap culture began to emerge and grow in New York, rappers began to utilize their voice and voice their opinions. An array of topics were now being discussed from race to survival in America. With subject matter constantly evolving with each generation rap music took a drastic turn in the 90’s. This became an era in which the glorification of†¦show more content†¦A theory that has been presented to rationalize why people act the way they do when listening to rap and how to come up with ways to prevent the influence from occurring in the first place is social disorgani zation. Social disorganization is a theory that was developed by Shaw and McKay between 1920 and 1930. Social disorganization analyzes the inefficiency of a community’s inability to share common values and problem solve collectively. The theory came about after the turn of the century in which a lot of social change begun to take place such as industrialization, urbanization, immigration and migration. With these social changes taking place in America many jobs were taken leaving tons of impoverished African Americans. African Americans began migrating to areas in which they could afford which then lead them to live with people in similar situations. With all these impoverished people in one area crime rates began to increase due to delinquent tendencies that now get passed from generation to generation. According to juvenile delinquency and urban areas â€Å"boy’s living in these areas are in contact not only with individuals who engage in proscribed activity but als o with groups which sanction such behavior and exert pressure upon their members to conform to standards†(Shawn and McKay). The quote provided from the text analyzes how kids are easily influenced by